Malcolm Knowles is perhaps the best known person for popularizing the theory that adults bring unique characteristics to the learning experience. Known as adult learning principles or adult learning theory theory, this work has merits but also has its critics. See the Criticisms of Adult Learning Theory at the end of this article.
If you’re interested in the evolution of andragogy in Europe and the U.S., see Various Ways of Understanding the Concept of Andragogy.
Malcolm Knowles Adult Learning Principles
The theory of adult learning infers that adults are not oversized children. Maturity and experience bring unique characteristics that affect how adults learn. According to this theory, appealing to the unique qualities of adult learners allows learning designers and educators to create more effective and motivating instruction. The following is a list of generalized characteristics common to many but not all adult learners.
- Autonomy. Adults typically prefer a sense of control and self-direction. They like options and choice in their learning environment. Even adults who feel anxiety from self-direction may learn to appreciate this approach if given proper initial support.
- Goal-oriented. Many adults have specific goals they are trying to achieve. They prefer to partake in learning activities that help them reach their goals.
- Practical. Adults in the workplace prefer practical knowledge and experiences that will make work easier or provide important skills. In other words, adults need personal relevance in learning activities.
- Competence and mastery. Adults like to gain competence in workplace skills as it boosts confidence and improves self-esteem.
- Learning by experience. Many adults prefer to learn by doing rather than listening to lectures.
- Wealth of Knowledge. In the journey from childhood to adulthood, people accumulate a unique store of knowledge and experiences. They bring this depth and breadth of knowledge to the learning situation.
- Purposeful. Workplace training is often part of an initiative that involves change. Adults want to know the purpose of training and the motivation underlying an organization’s training initiative.
- Emotional Barriers. Through experience, adults may fear a subject, have anxiety about a subject or feel anger about forced changes in job responsibilities or policies. These emotions can interfere with the learning process.
- Results-oriented. Adults are results-oriented. They have specific expectations for what they will get out of learning activities and will often drop out of voluntary learning if their expectations aren’t met.
- Outside responsibilities. Most adult learners have numerous responsibilities and commitments to family, friends, community and work. Carving out time for learning affects adult learners.
- Potential physical limitations. Depending on their age and physical condition, adult learners may acquire psychomotor skills more slowly than younger students and have more difficulties reading small fonts and seeing small images on the computer screen.
- Big Picture. Adults require the big picture view of what they’re learning. They need to know how the small parts fit into the larger landscape.
- Responsible for Self. Adult learners often take responsibility for their own success or failure at learning.
- Need for Community. Many self-directed adult learners prefer a learning community with whom they can interact and discuss questions and issues.
Criticisms of the Theory of Adult Learning
Critics of the theory deem that andragogy is not a real science because it cannot be measured (Rachal, 2002). Furthermore, the characteristics that Knowles presents are not present in all adults. Some adults are not independent learners and are dependent on a teacher. Also, some children are independent and self-directed learners.
Most likely due to the criticism, Knowles began to explain andragogy as less of a theory of adult learning than a “model of assumptions about learning or a conceptual framework that serves as a basis for an emergent theory” (Knowles, 1989, p. 112).
For more on the criticisms of adult learning theory, see Andragogy’s Transition Into The Future: Meta-Analysis of Andragogy and Its Search for a Measurable Instrument.
Conclusion
As long as learning designers are attuned to the attributes of the target audience, we can use the characteristics of adult learning as guidance. They may be true for many but not all adult learners. They are not a one-size-fits-all approach to adult learning. For more on adult learning, see 30 Ways to Get Your Audience Pumped.
References:
- Knowles, M. (1989). The making of an adult educator: An autobiographical journey (1st ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
- Rachal, J. R. (2002). Andragogy’s detectives: A critique of the present and a proposal for the future. Adult Education Quarterly, 52(3), 210.
- Taylor B. & M. Kroth. Andragogy’s Transition Into The Future: Meta-Analysis of Andragogy and Its Search for a Measurable Instrument. Journal of Adult Education, Volume 38, Number 1, 2009.
Rebecca,
Thanks for your comment. I think it’s important to always keep the criticisms of theories in mind, so we are not dogmatic and so we just use the theories as guidance when applicable. Therefore, it would make sense to be sensitive to the context/culture of where it’s used. Regarding the post-pandemic, what do you think has changed in terms of the theory?
My questions:
1) Are the Malcolm Knowles Adult Learning Principles still relevant post-pandemic (I see them more relevant than ever but do humor me!)?
2) Are the Malcolm Knowles Adult Learning Principles applicable to the adult learner globally? For example, I presented some of these theories and was questioned because in hierarchical countries, autonomy is not something that is embraced.
Any insight and opinions would be invited!
Hi Tricia – The pub date is 2009. Personally, I’ve begun to question how relevant the differences are between adult and younger learners and whether the variations are as stark as once thought. I think Clark Quinn summarized this perfectly. Check this out: https://blog.learnlets.com/2021/04/andragogy-vs-pedagogy/
I enjoyed your article, and I’d like to cite some of it for an article I am developing for trainers. What is the publication year, please?
Hi Bakari,
Can you be more explicit with what type of course?
Connie
can somebody help me take a degree course. am aged 52 years.
Hi Kelly,
Thanks for sharing your perspective. I understand what you mean and that could be the reason that Ted Talks are popular. On the other hand, so many of the lecturers many of us experienced were not great at it.
Connie
I disagree with the statement about lectures. I miss excellent lectures I attended as an undergraduate. I fear I was in the last generation that was taught via lecture. There is something magnificent in sitting at the feet of an expert and listening to a well delivered lecture. I attended undergraduate university 1997-2001. I have two Master’s degrees since then, and in no way was my graduate school education as good as my undergraduate education- mainly because there were no lectures and the classes mainly consisted of group and “busy” work. When the student senses that the instructor knows no more about the subject matter than the student, there is a problem. I think the era of the “sage on the stage” has disappeared. There seems to be no sages left. It is a sad commentary on our current civilization.
I am a motivation learner. I am eagered to learn and get the work down and done correctly.
This article is rich and resourceful it has indeed be of help in my research work.
I believe that adult education is not just an education for adults but it is an education that is done to remedy those who had missed the opportunity to acquire formal education and has such should be treated with utmost priority so that the adult learner will function adequately in the society regardless of the circumstances governing the loss of opportunity of being educated under the formal school setting….
Looks like Sept 28, 2009.
Dear Connie, first of all, I would like to thank you for posting this article, as this is what I need at the moment ( I am currently trying to complete my master degree majoring in Applied English Linguistics) and basically I agree to most of your list regarding the adult learning’s characteristics, however, I am still unsure whether or not your article can be used as one of my upcoming thesis resources (references)?. I would be really thankful if you could somehow give me some pieces of information regarding this matter in the form of research or journal? I have been trying to browse in the nets but it seemed hard to find one research that could meet my thesis specific participants which are focusing more on “YOUNG ADULT LEARNERS – EFL). And if I can include your article, I need to know when was this article published for the first time? I meant the exact date. Thank you once again, Connie.
Best Regards’
Siti
Hi Becky,
I’m sorry to hear about your work situation. You are insightful to realize what adult learners need and your situation is a perfect case study that exemplifies the principles. It’s always amazing to deduce concepts and principles and then realize there is an entire body of knowledge to support your ideas. Now that you’ve stumbled across it, you will find there is a huge body of knowledge related to adult learning, instructional design and cognitive psychology. I hope you can make your case and change minds.
Best,
Connie
Connie,
I stumbled here researching for my nurse as teacher course for my bsn. My group is studying patient teaching for middle age adults. However, the way you presented your points really struck a chord with me, as I have been an OR nurse for 11 years–the last 4 of which I have been a first assistant (assisting the surgeon at the field). Due to surgeon preferences, only certain staff are allowed to work in certain surgeon’s cases–mainly the large cases that all of us desire proficiency in. Over and over I have argued that a huge part of job satisfaction is to become competent or proficient in one’s job, and that by not stepping in and allowing us to improve our practice they are decreasing job satisfaction, however, the atmosphere within our OR also promotes defensiveness andmost of the other FA’s who are overlooked deny that it bothers them when directly questioned. It is prevalent among all of the skill groups here. This is the first time I have looked for or seen something supporting my complaints. I’m grateful to see that it is not sheer selfishness but a characteristic of adult learning. I didn’t mean for this to turn into a Dear Abby–but I did want to say Thank you. Nice information. I appreciate it and am using and citing it for our group project. When I do my personal project on older adult women and heart attack symptoms, I will be looking for your name specificallly for teaching tips.
Thanks, Esther.
I find this article very useful. I am facilitating a session on how adult learners learn and I am grateful to you.
Thank you, Marilee. That’s a very interesting perspective and I’m sure it will be helpful to others.
Best,
Connie
Our courses are professional licensing courses which have very rigid outlines which must be followed. There is no “coloring outside the lines.” Because they are primarily statutory and license law based, there is little room for creativity or game playing. I find that my primary motivational tool is my constant availability by phone and my 1 hour maximum response time for answering questions and pleas for help. Most of the students have no prior experience and are motivated by encouragement, my sharing the journey of other students struggling with new vocabulary and legal concepts, and reassurance that their dream is not only possible but assurance that “working in a team effort through the more difficult Modules” will bring success in passing the state exam and a rewarding career well worth the effort being spent.
Bite size is perfect for art instruction. Many adult learners obviously don’t want to focus on what they perceive as unuseful information. I strive to give them information on works of art and artists which draw them into the style or period or the characteristics of a specific artist…something they can relate to or use later in purchasing a work of art or utilizing knowledge in social conversations. A tidbit they can share with others.
I think we can improve on the adult education in Africa by putting theory to practices
This is a great addition, Marta. Thank you and good luck with your studies. You’ve chosen an awesome field.
Dear Connie,
Thank you for your insightful posts. I love your website and enjoy your writing style. I am an “adult learner” studying Instructional Design & Technology at Walden University (online program). And this post is actually part of my assignment on the topic of “Cognitive Information Processing” we covered this week.
I agree with all the characteristics, particularly with the Big Picture point. Whether it’s an adult characteristics or my own personality, I always need to know how what I am doing (whether in education, work, or personal life), fits in to the big picture; in other words, my effort has to add-value to something.
What I will also add to the list is Willingness to Learn. Of course it may not apply to everyone, but I think because of longer life experience, as adults, we understand the importance of learning and are more willing to learn. I am enjoying school and eager to learn this time around more so than I did in undergraduate school.
Thanks,
Marta
Student at Walden University – M.S. in Instructional Design & Technology
In addition to Knowles, he developed the seven andragogies which exemplifies the adult learner contributes to its development. For example, motivation, one of Knowles’ andragogies stress how important motivation is in any aspect of learning. The question reigns, how can the facilitator incorporate motivation into the adult learner’s learning environment successfully?
Self-directiveness is another one of Knowles andragogy. Maning that preserverance is becoming successful as an adult learner. In other words, we start from the bottom and rise to the top. Hence, leading towards the future learning design of the journey of adult learning (hood).
Knowles (1980) said: …adult educators must be primarily attuned to the existential concerns of the individuals and institution they serve and be able to develop learning experiences that will ve articulated with these concerns.
Hi VirtualProf,
I think it’s good that you’ve pointed out that a lot of younger adults have work and family responsibilities too. It’s good to keep in mind that they have their own set of responsibilities. The differences are greater between adults and children, of course. And even then, there is always overlap.
Connie
Christina D says:
“I think the main differences between adults and younger people are that adults have responsibilities and time constraints unlike younger learners. I think these challenges help provide an ability to focus.”
I would also suggest that younger people have responsibilities and time constraints as well. The difference is that theirs are not usually work and family (although I have many online students in the 18-22 age range who are juggling both of those responsibilities with school).
Younger people who do not have full time work and family obligations feel strongly that their recreation and sleep and party time are just as important to them as work and family obligations are to older adult learners. I have yet to persuade any of them as to the error of that thinking!! 🙂
That said, every semester I teach 6 classes with an average of 25 students in each. In the past four years, I have never had more than 3 younger full time students who do not work or have families. And most of the work at least part time.
I do have a lot of stay-at-home moms in the upper teens to mid-20’s age range.
My young learners, for the most part, demonstrate the same characteristics as my adult learners, especially the young learners who work full time and go to school.
Always good to find lists like this to share!
Thank you,
Katrina
DigitalChalk
Excellent point Christina. Being from Strayer, I’m sure you’ve observed this.
I think the main differences between adults and younger people are that adults have responsibilities and time constraints unlike younger learners. I think these challenges help provide an ability to focus.
This is a great article! I’m now learning how to teach adults and the hardest kind: sales people.
Sales people in any corporation have a bit of an arrogance of their importance to the company. As well as, they have a certain competitive personality. And…. they seem to have a type of Attention Deficit Disorder. They want you to get right to the point and be brief. If you ramble, or provide too much analytical detail, they lose attention.
Therefore, here’s my contribution to your article. For sales people:
“Bite Size” – Keep it short. Ideally, create little factoid modules that are not more than 10 minutes long. The rest of the time is better spent via thoughtful debate and discussion. As you mentioned, they like to learn by doing. And sales people love to talk.
I think it’s ok to have several bite-sized modules to cover an entire subject, but it’s good to give it one spoonful at a time.
Thank you,
Maria
It took me a month to come up with a better term for Inquisitive, as Peter Reed pointed out this is a pretty general term for many age groups. I finally thought that “Purposeful” might be better, meaning adults need to know the purpose of their training, where often children just go along with whatever is in front of them at the moment. =) Let me know what you think.
Very helpful article. This is a great guide for a work at home like me.
Excellent article. In a context where we read a lot about the technological tools, it’s a great addition as this article discusses practical needs of users.
Thanks for your thoughtful comment. Yes this list is definitely generalized. As to Inquisitive, I’d like to change that to something more accurate that reflects the adult’s need to know why they are taking training. Suggestions?
My problem with this is that many of these could be charactersitics of non-adult learners e.g. kids can be inquisitive and results oriented as well.
But also, at what point does one move from being a ‘child’ to an ‘adult’ learner. Is it simply by age or by qualification, or something else all together. This goes back to the Pedagogy Vs Androgogy debate.
And of course the list contains generalisations… not all adults will show these characteristics in learning.
So whilst I think the list is useful in gaining an idea about adult learners, its important not to take the list as definitive and 100% applicable to all adults.
Yep, “Outside Responsibilities” covered it! Good post, Connie.
Your addition of Time Poor is a good one. I thought I had it covered under “Outside Responsibilities” but Time Poor might be a better way to note it as a characteristic. Your article is great and a nice companion to this one. I hope everyone who reads this article will go and see Ryan’s too. Maybe we can write on the same topic on purpose some time!
Wow – only this morning did I publish my own article about adult learning principles: http://ryan2point0.wordpress.com – I would add “time poor” to your list of characteristics, and I support your observation that the list is common to many *but not all* adult learners.